What Drives Conflict Fragile States Greed Or Creed Politics Essay

What Drives Conflict Fragile States Greed Or Creed Politics Essay Under what conditions if any can Greed, Grievance and Creed be said to steer conflict in fragile states? The concept of fragile states has become very noticeable and that it is being related first and foremost to the United States national security doctrine of September 2002 and the assumed right to intervene preemptively as in Iraq has rightly turned many into skeptics toward this new consensus. It must be said, however, that while there are considerable reasons for that concern, the issues it raises are real. Greed, Grievance and Creed are concepts that seem to be basic in todays conflict. With the end of Cold War bipolarity this is a question that has become of significant importance, prompted by the increasingly visible self-financing nature of rebel movements within intrastate conflicts (Ballentine Sherman, 2003) State failure presents a genuine threat to the international system of globalization, partly, because the system derives its existence based on states and partly, because state failure is the primary cause of armed conflict, civil war, and the everyday threats to the security of people living within the territory of such states. Recent arguments and evidence suggest that fragile states are rooted in causes that reflect a combination of greed and grievance (Collier, 2000). The more widely accepted explanations generally focus on the grievance dimension, which assumes some form of resource or political deprivation (eg. Gurr, 1970; 2000). The greed explanation on the other hand assumes that rebels act in pursuit of self-interest material gain. Oil, diamonds, timber, precious stones and other primary commodities form the basis of the contestable resources over which rebels fight their governments. The term greed, moreover, serves as a convenient appellation to describe self-interested be haviour and the resources available to pay selective benefits. In effect, a strong resource base serves as a mechanism for mobilization Grievance-based issues are at the core of the process that leads to civil conflict in fragile states, but greed becomes salient when the rebel leadership begins to face a difficult task of motivating soldiers. In effect, grievance leads to collective behaviour, but defection is always a problem so rebel leaders resort to selective benefits that tap into self-interested behaviour. That is, since preferences of the leadership and soldiers generally differ, the leaders must pay selective benefits to keep rebel soldiers from defecting. This is made easier when extractable resources are contested and controlled by rebel forces. The most visible instances currently involve Sub-Saharan African countries trading in easily extractable diamonds, but the opiate trade in Asia and South America also reflects this role of exploitable resources as one mechanism fo r fuelling conflict. My argument proceeds as follows. First, I would ground this discussion in a general body of literature, for which the greed explanation provides a small but influential component. Next, present a theoretical framework from which to think about the role of self interested versus collective behaviour in conflict of fragile states and also showing other mechanisms affecting greed. I would also discuss the theories of greed and grievance and their effects on fragile states. Greed theorists (Collier 2000; Giuliano 2006) contend that grievances do not affect the probability of conflict as grievances are a constant factor in ethnic conflicts and thus have no explanatory power. So, although this essay offers no direct support of the greed hypothesis they do, indirectly challenge their contention that grievances can be ignored as a contributing factor in explaining the decision of ethnic groups to move to violence to achieve their political goals. GRIEVE VERSUS GRIEVIANCE The greed versus grievance dichotomy is a useful entry point into the debate about the causes of conflict in fragile states. In certain instances, where there are substantial quantities of capturable natural resource and wealth present such as alluvial diamonds, oil or drugs, greed may be the dominant factor prolonging conflict, but without group formation (for which some historical grievances are important) violent collective action cannot take place. In short, grievances can be present without greed, but it is difficult to sustain greedy motives without some grievances. Although greed and grievance are regarded as competing views, they may be complementary, as greed may lead to grievances and vice versa. The greed or grievance explanations (or some hybrid form of both) may be necessary for the outbreak of civil war, but arguably they are not sufficient. This is because the causes contribute to the risk of conflict, yet some societies despite having conditions pre-disposing them to civil war, such as horizontal inequality, polarisation and natural resource rents, do not descend into conflict. I argue that for the forces behind either greed or grievance to take the form of large-scale violence there must be other factors at work. GRIEVIANCES AND CREED AS CONFLICT DRIVERS Greed generates grievances and rebellion, legitimising further greed (Keen 2008: 32) Grievance borne of deprivation is an individual concern that manifests itself collectively. In the context of conflict or rebellion, grievance is sometimes described as a justice-seeking motivation. The discussion in this section on grievances begins with grievance based theories of conflict before moving on to measurement issues. THE THEORY OF GRIEVIANCE The grievance approach contends that the probability that an ethnic group will resort to violence can be explained by the level of aggravation/relative deprivation they feel toward their wider society. There are two components to grievance; underlying and proximate. Underlying grievance level is a function of several contextual factors including level of autonomy; conditions compared to those under the previous regime; ability to express anger or dissatisfaction; and satisfaction on other issues. Proximate grievance is a function of the issue triggering the current crisis. Issues that threaten a groups ability to freely express their identity are theorized to generate greater frustration and thus aggression than issues that are less central, or salient. Central to grievances are identity and group formation. An individuals utility may be related to his identity, specifically the relative position of the group he identifies with in the social pecking order; see Akerlof and Kranton (2000). An individual may derive utility from certain normative forms of behaviour appropriate to his identity but considered deviant by other groups, and may even face sanctions from like-minded group members if he deviates from them. This type of behavioural paradigm may be related to solving the collective action problems (Olson, 1965), without which organised large-scale violence is impossible, even if we believe conflict is primarily motivated by greed. As noted earlier, some appropriate definition of ethnicity may be a superior basis for group formation compared to social class in an ethnically homogenous society. This essay classifies theories of grievance into relative deprivation, polarization and horizontal inequality but focuses on relative deprivation. While it is important to differentiate them, some overlap amongst the three definitions is inevitable. RELATIVE DEPRIVATION The notion of relative deprivation dates back to the work of Ted Gurr (1970) who defines it as the discrepancy between what people think they deserve, and what they actually believe they can get; in short the disparity between aspirations and achievements. Thus, educational achievements may raise the aspirations of young people, but they will become frustrated if unemployed, occasionally venting their feelings in mass political violence. Gurr puts forward the following hypothesis, the potential for collective violence varies strongly with the intensity and scope of relative deprivation among members of a collectivity (p.24). This lays down the notion of relative deprivation as the micro-foundation for conflict. Relative deprivation is considered to be a major cause of internal conflicts, civil wars as well as sectarian and routine violence. The applications vary across ethno-communal lines, regional boundaries, societal class, or just the feeling of being relatively deprived vis-à   -vis the general situation. In the eastern Indonesian province of Maluku, the traditionally privileged Christians group felt relatively deprived against the rising Muslim community economically and politically, which resulted in the bloodiest Muslim-Christian conflict in the countrys history (Tadjoeddin, 2003). Similar statements centring on unemployment could be made about the Catholic-Protestant cleavage in Northern Ireland. In Nepal, the lack of development in remote rural districts of the country fuelled the Maoist insurgency (Murshed and Gates, 2005). Another type of violence can be described as routine. Tadjoeddin and Murshed (2007) examine the socio-economic origins of this type of violence in Java, Indonesia. It is centred on vigilante violence/popular justice and inter-group/neighbourhood brawls. Routine violence covers group or collective violence, and it is different from individual violence, domestic violence, or homicide-which can simply be labelled as crime. The theoretical underpinnings for routine violence are similar to those utilised to explain mass political violence short of internal war in Hibbs (1973). Using panel data analysis of count data, Tadjoeddin and Murshed (2007) examine the relationship between routine violence on one hand, and growth, poverty, and level of development (including education) on the other hand. The relationships between violence and the levels of education and income are non-linear in the form of inverted-U-shape curves. The reason for this is as follows: starting from low levels of averag e income and educational attainment, when this rise slightly there is much to compete over and quarrel about; this tendency, however, declines with further increases in income and education, as there is much more to lose from violence and as such, grievance begins to build up. Another explanation is the feeling of being relatively deprived since rising education is not automatically followed by rising income. The roots of revolution, conflict and civil war is the misdistribution of resources within society that affects disproportionately particular communities of people. In effect, deprivation writ large borders on a necessary condition for conflict, though deprivation is not a sufficient condition. Lichbach (1994:389) captures this notion of individual motivation by articulating what scholars see as several truths of peasant upheavals: 1) Peasants are unconcerned with broad purposes, philosophical systems, political theories, and the likes; 2) Peasant grievances are specific and well defined, limited and local; 3) Peasant actions are designed to satisfy material self interest, and therefore; 4) Peasants willà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ participate in collective action when they stand to gain particularistic benefits. The rebel elite, on the other hand, are willing to risk more, but also portend to gain more if they are successful even if success entails a compromise outcome. That is, their motivation for leading a rebellion will be more in line with altering the material and political resources of a collective people over self interested accumulation. In effect, in pursuit of this broad goal the rebel elite will organize those for whom the deprivation is personal, and when necessary pay selective benefit to keep rebel soldiers in the fold. Put differently, grievances are not socially constructed by rebel entrepreneurs (Collier, 2000), but instead lie at the core of the motivation to organize in response to the maldistribution of resources, such as land (Midlarsky, 1988) income (eg. Muller and Seligison, 1987), or political access. Initially, such involvement brings with it very little cost. However, as the state begins to respond to what it perceives as a threat, costs will be incurred at the individual level (Regan and Henderson, 2002; Gartner and Regan, 1996). As the cost of protest or rebellion increase a rational individual will look to defect from the movement, unless the rebel leader can find a way to counterbalance the costs by way of selective benefits. As the opposition movement germinates the requirements of the selective benefits can be rather low, but as the threat to the state increases, so does the level of repression and subsequently the demands by rebel soldiers for selective side payments. That is, there is a distinction between the onset of protest and the onset of higher levels of civil conflict. Mobilization may be a necessary condition for civil conflict but non-violent protest and violent rebellion are distinct. This is evident in the data on Minorit ies at Risk (Gurr, 2000). Because initial mobilization may carry minimal cost, grievances may well be sufficient to motivate the disaffected to participate in protest activities. In economic terms the cost of rebel labour is low because the size of the potential labour pool is large. However, the costs associated with full scale conflict or civil war are such that only the provision of selected benefits that outweigh the costs imposed by the state for participation can spur an individual to remain committed to the cause, and protection may be the most important side payment (eg. Heath et al,2000). Mason (1996; and with Heath et al, 2000) poses the question of when the non-elite will support the rebels or the government. Presumably each individual has the option of whether to lend support to one side or both sides, or neither sides, and that choice is predicted on maximizing their utility for a given level of effort. Three factors usually influence the conditions under which non-elite support a rebel movement: anticipated benefits, costs, and estimates of the likelihood that support for one group would be detected by the other. In the latter instance the costs are incurred when participation is detected. Using a maximization model analogy to the choice between paying or evading taxes, Mason demonstrates that when there are public benefits from rebel participation (ie, non-excludable), then rebel support will be largely a function of the fear of punishment if their support is detected (1996:70). When fear of detection is high the rebel leadership must resort to paying selective benefits (excludable). However, when the rebels control a specific region and rebel soldiers can be adequately protected, selective benefits can be reduced in proportion to the amount of protection offered by the rebels. Protection comes primarily in the form of shielding participants from the political repression meted out by the state, such that as the state increases repression more people will mobilize around the rebel cause in order to avoid the abuse at the hands of the state. The general arguments present a picture of a group that seeks redress from its absolute or relative level of deprivation, most often a result of formal or informal government policies to channel resources in particular patterns. This distribution of resources or maldistribution increases the incentives for the non-elite to support the elite who are organizing an armed challenge to state authority. But rebel soldiers act rationally and only support a movement when they expect to gain materially from participation. Absent a strong philosophical attraction to the rebel movement the soldiers will be motivated most directly by the provision of both excludable and non-excludable benefits. Both the state and the rebel- elite campaign for the support of the masses by providing a mix of protection, punishment and benefits. My argument suggests that the importance of economic incentives, or at the extreme, greed, depends on two factors: the level of repression a state administers toward suspected rebels, and the amount of protection the rebel movement can provide the individual. When repression is high the individual will be more concerned with protection, thereby decreasing the importance of economic concerns. In effect the excludable good provided by the rebel elite is protection against acts of violence perpetrated by the state. However, as coercion by the government decreases, concerns over protection gives way to those of income with the result that the individual participant must be paid for by means of some other excludable good, which we might think about in terms of income paid for their labour. The escalation from political protest to civil violence, conflict or war is a function of the actions and reactions of the rebels and the state, and I can argue that, it follows an identifiable sequence (Moore, 2000; 1998). As grievances lead to opposition against state policies, political entrepreneurs begin to mobilize opposition supporters. The state response is to try to minimize mobilization through efforts at coercion or concession (Bayan, 2002; Regan and Henderson, 2002). As the state gets more coercive the rebel entrepreneurs have a greater opportunity to provide protection to potential supporters, possibly in spite of not being able to offer economic incentives comparable to those offered by the state (Heath et al 2000). Initially the opposition may adopt non-violent means, but as the opposition grows it will press for greater demands or concessions from the state, in part because their ability to do so has increased, but also because their constituency will reflect a wider spectrum. As the state responds with increasing repression the level of violence moves from protest to rebellion, and possibly to civil war (Gurr, 2000). From this framework we articulate a series of testable premises: 1: The greater the level of inequality the higher will be the probability of observing the onset of protest, rebellion, and conflict in fragile states. Since the ability to provide excludable or non-excludable benefits sufficient to secure the support of the masses will be partially a function of the level of discontent at the status quo position, the lower the level of absolute or relative level of penury political or material the greater the marginal utility of each increment of a public or private benefit. Therefore potential rebels can be mobilized more easily when the pre-conflict status quo position provides for a rather low level of utility. This would be reflected in the wealth of the country that is distributable (per capita GDP) and the degree to which it is distributed equitably (GINI). 2: Higher levels of political repression will decrease the likelihood of the onset of protest, but increase rebellion and civil war. Conflicts in fragile states do not emerge wholly from the wellspring of discontent, but rather move from lower levels of unrest toward large-scale violence and war. Recruitment and mobilization are critical. The ability to recruit and organize rebel soldiers will be a function of the degree of protection that can be provided in return for support, or conversely, the level of random punishment meted out by the government. Initially repression will help to dissuade potential protesters from participation, but people involved in violent forms of rebellion will respond differently to government repression. When the opposition engages in violence high levels of state repression will lead potential rebel supporters to conclude that the probability of punishment is high and approaching certainty. Under these conditions potential supporters will join the moveme nt in pursuit of protection from random punishment by the state. 3: However, given the lower cost for participation in protest activity extractable resources will have no effect on the onset of protest. The ability to pay private selective benefits only to those who participate in the rebel movement is vitally important to a movements viability. In general the government will have greater access to resources with which to pay selective benefits, even though they may choose to attempt to stifle participation through repression. In order for the rebel elite to compete with the state in providing private benefits they must obtain access to resources. Localized and easily extractable resources provide the most efficient means to generate income. Once or if they acquire access to exploitable resources these can be converted into private benefits that increase the incentives for the soldiers to maintain loyalty. The greater the ability to pay these selective benefits the more loyal the rebel soldiers and the more difficult is the task facing the state in trying to offer its own array of private benefits. The abundance of resources is only one factor highlighted by Collier and Hoeffler. The ability of a rebellion to recruit soldiers also plays a key role in making a conflict a feasible undertaking: other things equal, we might expect that the proportion of young men in a societyaged between 15-24 would be a factor influencing the feasibility of rebellion: the greater the proportion of young men, the easier it would be to recruit rebels (Collier 1999: 3). Colliers later work also emphasised the feasibility or opportunity argument over rebel motivations (or grievances), insofar that insurgent movements can only emerge and be sustained when resources are available to finance them (Aspinall 2007). Critics of Collier have argued that his position goes some way to reinforcing the World Banks mandate (Collier was employed by the World Bank at the time). As Mark Duffield (2001: 132-134) emphasises, usefully the only grievance of any relevance is rapid economic decline: in other words, poor economic management. CREED AS A CONFLICT DRIVER Soysa (2001) noted that Creed-related conflicts seem to be more prevalent in highly homogenous religious settings, particularly within largely Islamic and Catholic countries. If there is a clash of civilizations, it is much likely that it is politics rather than civilization. Zartman (2000) sees Creed itself as a need whereby everyone wants to feel some level of identity, through identifying with strong views and/or belief systems. Such needs vary according to the entity and environment, the latter being a social trend of greater significance to the current argument than the former. Individuals have a superior need to know who they are in some circumstances than in others. Three such conditions have a predominantly significant impact on the need for identity: rapid or profound change, breakdown of other identities, and discrimination. Zartman(2000) also notes that when deprivation sets in, it results in identity based conflict as collective needs for identity turns deprivation into discrimination. In addition to this insecurity sets in and eventually breeds grievance in the group. In other words, Creed is an extension of Grievance. It can be argued that creed-based rebellions may be circumvented by when governments channel resources wealth in such a way as to guarantee equitable distribution of resources or wealth. THE THEORY OF GREED Greed in this study is, defined as the predatory aspiration of rebels to grasp material wealth through illegal means short of subjective perceptions of relative deprivation. The greed motivation behind conflict has been popularised by empirical work on the causes of conflicts and war where a cross-section of conflicts in different nations is analyzed together econometrically, and greed is understudied by the availability or abundance of capturable natural resource rents. In Collier and Hoeffler (2004) conflicts stem from the greedy behaviour of a rebel group in organising an insurgency against the government. Greed is about opportunities faced by the rebel group. The opportunities can be disaggregated into three components: financing, recruitment and geography. The most common sources of rebel finance are the appropriation of natural resources, donations from sympathetic Diasporas residing abroad, contributions from foreign states (hostile to the government) or multinational companie s interested in the region. Natural resource wealth is the chief among the three in terms of its relative importance. Recruitment is about the opportunity to induct fighting manpower; something made easier when there is a high proportion of young unemployed males in population, in a setting of endemic poverty and poor education. Geographical situations favourable to rebel groups are mountainous terrain and other safe havens for insurgents. In short, greed simply means the economic opportunity to fight, and should be distinguished from socio-political grievances. Collier and Hoefflers (2004) empirical findings conclude that the set of variables representing rebel opportunity or greed akin to loot-seeking are the main reasons for civil war. By implication, the alternative hypothesis of grievance (justice-seeking) focusing on ethnic religious divisions, political repression and horizontal inequality is dismissed, although its invalidity is not formally tested for. Natural resource rents constitute booty and this f act has been used to emphasise the greed or criminal motivation for conflict in fragile states. Central to the Collier and Hoefflers empirical testing for the greed hypothesis is the role of primary commodities in the economic structure. They measure the dependence on natural resources by the share of primary commodity exports in GDP, and the validity of this metric as well as the statistical robustness of the relationship between resource rents and the risk of conflict has been called into question. Be that as it may, the combined Collier and Hoeffler greed and Fearon and Laitin (2003) messages about greed and state failure causing rebellion, conflict or civil war has had an immense influence in the media and the donor policy communitys thinking about conflict. Therefore, any theorising about greed must be based on the economic motivations for violence and criminality. Belligerents in the wars of natural-resource rich countries could be acting in ways close to what Olson (1996) referred to as roving bandits who have no encompassing interest in preserving the state or its people but are simply intent on loot-than to stationary bandits who take control of the state and seek to maximise their own profit by encouraging stability and growth in their new domain. Conflict in Fragile States motivated by the desire to control natural resource rents could also mirror warlord competition, a term that owes its origins to the violent competition between leaders attempting to control economic resources in the context of medieval Europe. Skaperdas (2002) In a nutshell, a proper greed-based theory of conflict must relate to the trade-off between production and predation in making a living, where we may view war as theft writ large. Violence is one means of appropriating the resources of others. Note, that armed conflict implies the absence of contractual interaction (Edgeworth, 1881), and is in stark contrast to the alternative method of benefiting from the endowments of others via peaceful and voluntary exchange (trade) between economic agents, groups or nations. This implies that we also need to specify the conditions under which violence becomes a viable or more attractive option relative to other alternatives. A variety of game theoretic models describing the non-cooperative and conflictive interaction between groups exist, where the object is to capture the rivals endowment by force. One such model is due to Hirshleifer (1995), where each group has a fixed resource endowment, which can be used to either produce goods for consumption or armaments to fight the other group. Groups exist in a state of non-contractual anarchy vis-à  -vis each other; this also implies the absence of enforceable property rights. The object of fighting is to capture some of the rivals endowment. Success in war is uncertain, and the probability of victory is given by a Tullock (1980) contest success function, where the probability of victory for any group is given by their own military expenditure relative to the total fighting outlay made by all protagonists. Additionally, there is a military effectiveness parameter (akin to what is known as a force multiplier in military establishments); something that raises t he effectiveness of each unit of fighting effort. In the absence of increasing returns to scale in military effectiveness, and if a minimum subsistence income is present there will be a Nash non-cooperative equilibrium associated with some fighting. In other words, in the equilibrium both (or all) parties will be engaged in some fighting with each other, as well as some productive activities; unless one side manages to conquer others due to its individual military superiority. Hirshleifer (1995) describes this as a state of anarchy -something akin to primitive tribal warfare. Note, no possibility of trade is permitted between groups. Skaperdas (1992) outlines a model that is similar because it has a fixed resource endowment which can be devoted to either production or armament. The probability of success in war also depends on a similar contest success function. Both these models, however, neglect the destructiveness of war (collateral damage), and its capacity to ravage productive capacity, additional to direct military expenditure. These models employ intermediate inputs, and not factors of production, which can be shifted between fighting and production at no cost. Secondly, there is no growth in these models, something which would raise the opportunity costs of war. A similar effect could arise from complementarities in production between groups and/or economies of scale, which would make mergers between groups or cooperation in each groups self-interest. Thirdly, the possibilities of peaceful exchange need to be limited (absent in Hirshleifer, 1995) in order to rationalise conflict. Wars can also reflect the absence of institutions which facilitate negotiation and peaceful exchange. Despite these limitations, there is much in these models that can explain the greedy behaviour as analyzed by the empirical exponents of the greed hypothesis. The presence of readily capturable natural resource based rents may make conflict more attractive when compared to peaceful production, as can a shortage of intermediate inputs due to population pressure. These resources are best regarded as a nonproduced prize such as oil or diamonds (which apart from extraction costs are like manna from heaven), whose ownership is violently contested. Secondly, contributions from a sympathetic diaspora (or aid from a super-power in the cold war era) can raise the probability of victory of a potential rebel group against the state. Also, the inability of the state to act as a Stackelberg leader in a potentially divided nation may raise the chances of war between groups in a manner similar to t he weak state capacity mechanism favoured by some political scientists (like James Fearon). For example, in the Hirshleifer (1995) model where different groups are in a state of anarchy vis-à  -vis one another, the ability of one group to behave as a Stackelberg leader reduces equilibrium fighting levels and raises each sides per-capita income. The leader, however, gains relatively less compared to followers, creating an incentive for each side to be a follower. If one group is strong and militarily more effective it will dominate other groups, and there will be no fighting in the equilibrium. This may lead to state formation, which may or

Theories of Aging

For this part of the assignment I am going to be describing two theories of ageing. Firstly I will be describing the Disengagement theory and then the Activity theory. I will then be comparing the similarities and differences between the two, and also writing up two case studies of older people and explain the development that occurs in older life, relating back to the theories I will have discussed. Firstly the theory of Social Disengagement, disengagement means a person’s withdrawal from involvement with anything. The theory was first put forward by two authors Cumming and Henry in 1961 who believed that it was natural for the elderly to withdraw from social involvement with others, due to having restricted opportunities to interact with other people. There are many issues that limit social interaction which results in disengagement. Some of these may be things like retirement, ill health, mobility, travel or technology. The theory of disengagement was widely accepted as other theorists such as Bromley (1974) agreed with the theory arguing that â€Å"although some individuals fight the process all the way, disengagement of some sort is bound to come, simply because old people have neither the physical not the mental resources they had when they were young. † Secondly the Activity theory, this theory argues that older people need to stay mentally and socially active to limit the risks of disengagement. Being active in older life can help people to overcome many of the problems and issues they will have to endure throughout the older lifestage. Being active can include taking part in sports and activities, joining clubs and groups to go on trips, outings, holidays and even simple things like continuing with hobbies such as gardening or walking the dog. Being active is very important for many reasons when a person is in the later years of life. It is believed that it’s not enough to simple provide facilities for older people they must be educated to make use of them and encouraged to abandon fixed habits. The main argument for the activity theory is that disengagement can ultimately result in loss of physical and mental skills due to lack of practice. My first case study is of a man named Howard Lane, he died aged 75 years old and had been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s 9 years earlier. Over the 9 years his condition seriously deteriorated. Howard had had a very active life with various jobs such as a Clerk of Works at Par Docks, a mental nurse and other physically demanding roles. He had been married for 52 years and had two grown up children, a daughter Jennie who had two children and a son Richard who had four children. Howard was a very involved grandparent throughout the whole of his grandchildren’s lives until his condition deteriorated so badly he couldn’t even tell who they were anymore. As Howard reached retirement he remained a very engaged active person despite the label he was now given as being ‘old. ’ He very much fitted the role within the activity theory, regularly exercising, seeing his family, keeping in contact with them in a number of ways. He and his wife had a particular passion for ballroom dancing†¦ they had won competitions! He had a very healthy appetite, and had never smoked or drank at all throughout his life. Although Howard had always been healthy and had no previous health issues and had stayed active throughout his final lifestage he still developed the disease Alzheimer’s. As the illness progressed Howard gradually changed as a person. He became forgetful, got confused easily, and as he began to seriously deteriorate he became violent at times, physically incapable of doing things for himself, he would forget things that had happened and who people were. Further into his illness Howard became more and more disengaged. His whole life had changed due to the process of ageing along with the unfortunate illness he had. Not only had the disengagement affected Howard as a person it was also affecting a lot around him. Firstly the most obvious effect it was having was on Howard’s family. They began to be constantly worry about him therefore would be constantly in contact asking him if he was ok. It also put a large amount of stress on his wife Vera, and because she was in her older age as well she found it very hard to deal with the stress she was under. By the time Howard was the age of 71 Vera had no other option but to put Howard in a nursing home so he could receive the care that he needed. Due to Howard’s illness Vera had now become disengaged, she had spent all of her time looking after her husband, worrying about him and visiting him constantly. Another major factor that affected Vera’s stress was the fees she had to pay at the nursing home. She was very worried about the scale of the costs and was worried about having to sell her home. She had gradually lost contact with her friends and had no time for any personal hobbies or even time to properly look after herself and because of this Vera had become stressed and run down and was finding caring for Howard very hard to cope with. Her biggest worry and fear constantly being how she would cope with it if Howard died. Bereavement is usually hard to cope with for the elderly especially disengaged people, they are likely to feel more isolated and alone and this is what Vera was frightened of. In actual fact Vera died suddenly in December 2003, shortly followed by Howard June 2004. By this time Howard had no understanding of anyone around him as he had little response to anything, therefore he did not grieve for his wife as he didn’t even understand that she was gone. Their family described it as a blessing because in this way Vera never had to cope with the bereavement of losing her partner and neither did he. Overall retirement did have a positive effect on Vera and Howard to begin with. They had more freedom to be active, pursue their hobbies, spend time together, and with their loved ones. However old age brought ill health which caused Vera and Howard to disengage and become isolated from others which continued to bring ill health and stress. My second case study is about a woman named Ruth Cohen. Ruth Cohen is an 84 year old woman, she had previously been a teacher for nearly 40 years. Ruth has one son of 60 who has two daughters Lisa and Issie, Lisa has a son of 17. Ruth is a very old woman and has a number of health problems including arthritis, high blood pressure, and sight and hearing problems. However Ruth has lead a very healthy and active retirement. Since Ruth has retired she has done voluntary work for a number of charities and her local church as she is a very religious woman. Even in her late 70’s Ruth attends church every Sunday and helped to run the local Sunday school. She regularly met her friends from church to go out for tea. She tries to visit her children and grandchild as much as she can however due to her eyesight she cannot drive anymore so her only way of seeing them is to get the bus. In her old age, Ruth despite still being so active has become quite frail and is frightened easily therefore tries to avoid going to places with people she doesn’t know, she tends to stay in her own village, go to the same shops and see the same people every day. Ruth was married for 60 years to James, unfortunately 14 years ago James passed away due to a heart attack. Ruth obviously had a hard time with the loss of her husband of 60 years however because of the lifestyle Ruth led she managed to carry on with her life and avoided becoming disengaged and easily accepted the support and help of ther whereas a lot of people cannot do so so easily. Because of Ruth’s personality and the way she was her family didn’t feel like they had to constantly worry about her and they knew she would be getting on fine without their constant care. However Ruth is getting rather old now so they do visit more frequently and her granddaughter Issie bought her a dog to keep her compan y and occupied. As Ruth entered her 80’s the physical ageing process could no longer be avoided and began to take over her life. She became very weak and could only walk with a Zimmer frame, she became increasingly isolated in her home due to mobility issues and although people did visit she began to feel lonely and depressed. This case study is perfect evidence of the disengagement theory. Although Ruth remained active and dealt with the bereavement she endured and her health issues it was inevitable that age caught up on her, she lead a fulfilling retirement and kept up all of her routines and hobbies as long as she physically could but eventually her mobility limited her life and effected her emotionally as well as physically. Theories of Aging For this part of the assignment I am going to be describing two theories of ageing. Firstly I will be describing the Disengagement theory and then the Activity theory. I will then be comparing the similarities and differences between the two, and also writing up two case studies of older people and explain the development that occurs in older life, relating back to the theories I will have discussed. Firstly the theory of Social Disengagement, disengagement means a person’s withdrawal from involvement with anything. The theory was first put forward by two authors Cumming and Henry in 1961 who believed that it was natural for the elderly to withdraw from social involvement with others, due to having restricted opportunities to interact with other people. There are many issues that limit social interaction which results in disengagement. Some of these may be things like retirement, ill health, mobility, travel or technology. The theory of disengagement was widely accepted as other theorists such as Bromley (1974) agreed with the theory arguing that â€Å"although some individuals fight the process all the way, disengagement of some sort is bound to come, simply because old people have neither the physical not the mental resources they had when they were young. † Secondly the Activity theory, this theory argues that older people need to stay mentally and socially active to limit the risks of disengagement. Being active in older life can help people to overcome many of the problems and issues they will have to endure throughout the older lifestage. Being active can include taking part in sports and activities, joining clubs and groups to go on trips, outings, holidays and even simple things like continuing with hobbies such as gardening or walking the dog. Being active is very important for many reasons when a person is in the later years of life. It is believed that it’s not enough to simple provide facilities for older people they must be educated to make use of them and encouraged to abandon fixed habits. The main argument for the activity theory is that disengagement can ultimately result in loss of physical and mental skills due to lack of practice. My first case study is of a man named Howard Lane, he died aged 75 years old and had been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s 9 years earlier. Over the 9 years his condition seriously deteriorated. Howard had had a very active life with various jobs such as a Clerk of Works at Par Docks, a mental nurse and other physically demanding roles. He had been married for 52 years and had two grown up children, a daughter Jennie who had two children and a son Richard who had four children. Howard was a very involved grandparent throughout the whole of his grandchildren’s lives until his condition deteriorated so badly he couldn’t even tell who they were anymore. As Howard reached retirement he remained a very engaged active person despite the label he was now given as being ‘old. ’ He very much fitted the role within the activity theory, regularly exercising, seeing his family, keeping in contact with them in a number of ways. He and his wife had a particular passion for ballroom dancing†¦ they had won competitions! He had a very healthy appetite, and had never smoked or drank at all throughout his life. Although Howard had always been healthy and had no previous health issues and had stayed active throughout his final lifestage he still developed the disease Alzheimer’s. As the illness progressed Howard gradually changed as a person. He became forgetful, got confused easily, and as he began to seriously deteriorate he became violent at times, physically incapable of doing things for himself, he would forget things that had happened and who people were. Further into his illness Howard became more and more disengaged. His whole life had changed due to the process of ageing along with the unfortunate illness he had. Not only had the disengagement affected Howard as a person it was also affecting a lot around him. Firstly the most obvious effect it was having was on Howard’s family. They began to be constantly worry about him therefore would be constantly in contact asking him if he was ok. It also put a large amount of stress on his wife Vera, and because she was in her older age as well she found it very hard to deal with the stress she was under. By the time Howard was the age of 71 Vera had no other option but to put Howard in a nursing home so he could receive the care that he needed. Due to Howard’s illness Vera had now become disengaged, she had spent all of her time looking after her husband, worrying about him and visiting him constantly. Another major factor that affected Vera’s stress was the fees she had to pay at the nursing home. She was very worried about the scale of the costs and was worried about having to sell her home. She had gradually lost contact with her friends and had no time for any personal hobbies or even time to properly look after herself and because of this Vera had become stressed and run down and was finding caring for Howard very hard to cope with. Her biggest worry and fear constantly being how she would cope with it if Howard died. Bereavement is usually hard to cope with for the elderly especially disengaged people, they are likely to feel more isolated and alone and this is what Vera was frightened of. In actual fact Vera died suddenly in December 2003, shortly followed by Howard June 2004. By this time Howard had no understanding of anyone around him as he had little response to anything, therefore he did not grieve for his wife as he didn’t even understand that she was gone. Their family described it as a blessing because in this way Vera never had to cope with the bereavement of losing her partner and neither did he. Overall retirement did have a positive effect on Vera and Howard to begin with. They had more freedom to be active, pursue their hobbies, spend time together, and with their loved ones. However old age brought ill health which caused Vera and Howard to disengage and become isolated from others which continued to bring ill health and stress. My second case study is about a woman named Ruth Cohen. Ruth Cohen is an 84 year old woman, she had previously been a teacher for nearly 40 years. Ruth has one son of 60 who has two daughters Lisa and Issie, Lisa has a son of 17. Ruth is a very old woman and has a number of health problems including arthritis, high blood pressure, and sight and hearing problems. However Ruth has lead a very healthy and active retirement. Since Ruth has retired she has done voluntary work for a number of charities and her local church as she is a very religious woman. Even in her late 70’s Ruth attends church every Sunday and helped to run the local Sunday school. She regularly met her friends from church to go out for tea. She tries to visit her children and grandchild as much as she can however due to her eyesight she cannot drive anymore so her only way of seeing them is to get the bus. In her old age, Ruth despite still being so active has become quite frail and is frightened easily therefore tries to avoid going to places with people she doesn’t know, she tends to stay in her own village, go to the same shops and see the same people every day. Ruth was married for 60 years to James, unfortunately 14 years ago James passed away due to a heart attack. Ruth obviously had a hard time with the loss of her husband of 60 years however because of the lifestyle Ruth led she managed to carry on with her life and avoided becoming disengaged and easily accepted the support and help of ther whereas a lot of people cannot do so so easily. Because of Ruth’s personality and the way she was her family didn’t feel like they had to constantly worry about her and they knew she would be getting on fine without their constant care. However Ruth is getting rather old now so they do visit more frequently and her granddaughter Issie bought her a dog to keep her compan y and occupied. As Ruth entered her 80’s the physical ageing process could no longer be avoided and began to take over her life. She became very weak and could only walk with a Zimmer frame, she became increasingly isolated in her home due to mobility issues and although people did visit she began to feel lonely and depressed. This case study is perfect evidence of the disengagement theory. Although Ruth remained active and dealt with the bereavement she endured and her health issues it was inevitable that age caught up on her, she lead a fulfilling retirement and kept up all of her routines and hobbies as long as she physically could but eventually her mobility limited her life and effected her emotionally as well as physically.

Topics about Science for Essay Tips & Guide

Topics about Science for Essay Tips & Guide The Principles of Topics about Science for Essay That You Will be Able to Benefit From Beginning Right Away You're able to be supplied a topic to write on or it's possible to be given the choice to decide on a topic for your science research paper. If you still don't understand what essay topics to write about, take a look at this thought-provoking list there are lots of suggestions to consider and choose. Select an intriguing essay topic, and you are going to start enjoying it. You could possibly be given the topic straight away by your professor, or maybe you be free to select the topic yourself. In case the topic is too narrow, you might find it difficult to discover the appropriate literature. The multiple topics might be found, for instance, in the dissertation abstracts international database. Read on to find out more about topics on Geology. Topics about Science for Essay: No Longer a Mystery If your work isn't structured correctly, you might wind up getting a very low grade even if your paper is excellent. You would like your paper to reflect you, so make sure you be totally original in your material. If you have to write only 1 paper at the conclusion of the period, you can breathe out since you are blessed. Ever since your term paper is all about what you've learned and what more you wish to learn, you need to demonstrate your knowledge together with evidence of one-of-a-kind thought. With all these choices to explore, it is often quite overwhelming to choose one particular topic for your paper particularly if your instructor has given you an open-ended sort of assignment. Students can't decide on the very first idea they see on the net or in the print media it's about choosing excellent research paper topics on the relevant troubles. Year in, Year out, they find that the report called the research paper is the part of the science fair project where they learn the most. The study of geology is thus very essential in the earth. As an example, let's assume you can write on the subject of all-natural disasters. As a consequence, Earth science expands our comprehension of the all-natural characteristics and processes that we often find so awe-inspiring. It is known as the study of the Earth. The Fight Against Topics about Science for Essay When prior brainstorming is finished, you might begin drafting your essay. Planning is critical in any sort of home task, from creating a powerpoint presentation to supplying American Government homework help to your friend. It seems that choosing research paper topics have turned into the most difficult practice. Research papers are trying, but in addition they have the capacity to be somewhat rewarding. The damage of properties can cause secondary effects like fire, which is produced due to the rupture of pure gas mains and water lines. It is likewise very vital in identifying underground water which can be tapped for heavy industrial purposes like irrigation to produce both subsistence and industrial food crops. When the subject of pollution comes up, most individuals revolve around the damage we inflict on Earth through using fossil fuels and excessive waste. Number some decent explanations for why the present trade barriers are the primary obstacle to improving economic relations between, for instance, North America and China. Remember your primary purpose is to understand the requirement of the topic. If you're interested in your topic, learning about it'll be more pleasurable and you'll write with increased passion, so select your topic thoughtfully. Inten sive farming has many advantages and disadvantages. They all have online guides about how to create proper references, and you may quickly get the idea and logic of every one of them. Once you've got a concept of what you wish to write about, be certain that your topic is neither broad nor narrow. When it's online, it has to be true as the absolute most dangerous stereotype of digital natives. The Key to Successful Topics about Science for Essay A good deal of people nowadays are interested in politics, and there are lots of conversations happening throughout the world about it. You may believe that interesting essay titles do all of the work, allowing you to add obvious examples and share ordinary ideas. When you own a list before your eyes, it is going to be a lot easier to compose your mind and begin considering a specific matter. These topics will help you a whole lot in your assignments. New Questions About Topics about Science for Essay Be certain that you pick the best resources and references into consideration before you present a crucial analysis. It's OK to copy such information so long as you reference it using a citation. For some students, a collection of topic is the easiest part. Both options aren't good enough because it is going to be difficult to choose the best literature. DNA analysis and genetics also have become computer-based in the last twenty decades. In the majority of instances, understanding the needs of science research topics will ask you to carry out some preliminary exploration around the subject. Argue that public higher education has to be free for everybody. Social science studies different facets of human interaction, for instance, crime prevention.

Green Algae (Chlorophyta)

Chlorophyta are commonly known as green algae and sometimes, loosely, as seaweed. They grow primarily in freshwater and saltwater, although some are found on land. They may be unicellular (one cell), multicellular (many cells), colonial (a loose aggregation of cells), or coenocytic (one large cell). Chlorophyta convert sunlight to starch that is stored in cells as a food reserve. Green Algae Characteristics Green algae have dark- to light-green coloration that comes from having chlorophyll a and b, which they have in the same amounts as higher plants—the plants, including seed plants and ferns,  that have  well-developed vascular tissues that transport organic nutrients. Their color is determined by the amounts of other pigmentation, including beta-carotene (yellow) and xanthophylls (yellowish or brownish). Like higher plants, they store their food mainly as starch, with some as fats or oils. In fact, green algae might have been the progenitors of the higher green plants, but that is the subject of debate. Chlorophyta belong to the kingdom Plantae. Originally, Chlorophyta referred to a division within the Plantae kingdom comprising all green algae species. Later, green algae species living predominantly in seawater were classified as chlorophytes (i.e., belonging to Chlorophyta), while green algae species thriving mainly in freshwater were classified as  charophytes  (i.e., belonging to  Charophyta). The AlgaeBase database lists about 4,500 species of  Chlorophyta, including 550 species of Trebouxiophyceae  (mostly on land and in freshwater), 2,500 species of Chlorophyceae  (mostly freshwater), 800 species of Bryopsidophyceae (seaweeds), 50 species of Dasycladophyceae  (seaweeds), 400  species of Siphoncladophyceae (seaweeds), and 250 marine Ulvophyceae (seaweeds). Charophyta include 3,500 species allocated to five classes. Habitat and Distribution of Green Algae The habitat of green algae is diverse, ranging from the ocean to freshwater. Rarely, green algae can also be found on land, largely on rocks and trees, with some appearing on the surface of snow. They are common in areas where light is abundant, such as shallow water and tide pools, and less common in the ocean than brown and red algae, but they can be found in freshwater areas. Invasive Species Some members of Chlorophyta are invasive species. Cladophora glomerata bloomed in Lake Erie in the 1960s because of phosphate pollution. The rotting algae washed up on beaches and produced an odor so foul that it discouraged the public from enjoying the lakes. It became so offensive in sight and smell that it was confused for raw sewage. Two other species, Codium (also known as dead mans fingers) and Caulerpa, threaten native plant life in coastal California, Australia, the Atlantic Coast, and the Mediterranean Sea. One invasive species, Caulerpa taxifolia, has been introduced into nonnative environments because of its popularity in aquariums. Green Algae as Animal and Human Food and Medicine Like other algae, green algae serve as an important food source for herbivorous marine life, such as fish, crustaceans, and gastropods, including sea snails. Humans use green algae as food, too. and it has long been part of the cuisine of Japan. There are more than 30 species of edible seaweed, which is naturally rich in minerals such as calcium, copper, iodine, iron, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, phosphorous, potassium, selenium, vanadium, and zinc. Edible types of green algae include sea lettuce, sea palm, and sea grapes. The pigment beta carotene, found in green algae, is used as a food coloring. Carotene also has been shown to be very effective in preventing some cancers, including lung cancer. Researchers announced in January 2009 that green algae could play a role in reducing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. As sea ice melts, iron is introduced to the ocean. This fuels the growth of algae, which can absorb carbon dioxide and trap it near the ocean floor. With more glaciers melting, this could reduce the ​effects of global warming. Other factors, however, can reduce this benefit; if the algae are  eaten, the carbon can be released back into the environment.​​​​ Fast Facts Here are some quick facts about green algae: Green algae are also referred to as Chlorophyta and, sometimes, seaweed.They convert sunlight to starch that is stored as a food reserve.Green algaes color comes from having chlorophyll.Green algaes habitat ranges from the ocean to freshwater and sometimes to land.They can be invasive, with some species fouling beaches.Green algae are food for sea animals and humans.Green algae are used in cancer treatment.They could help reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Sources: http://www.seaweed.ie/algae/chlorophyta.php https://www.reference.com/science/characteristics-phylum-chlorophyta-bcd0eab7424da34 http://www.seaweed.ie/algae/chlorophyta.php https://eatalgae.org/edible-seaweed/